Sentiment antijaponais

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Le drapeau de la marine impériale japonaise semblait particulièrement alarmant et hostile durant la seconde guerre mondiale.

Le sentiment anti-japonais concerne la xénophobie, particulièrement, le déteste, le grief, le soupçon, l'intimidation, la peur, et/ou l' hostilité envers les japonais, le Japon et/ou la Culture japonaise. Parfois, le terme japonophobie est aussi utilisé ^[1].

[modifier] Aperçu général

Les sentiments antijaponais vont de l'animosité à l'égard des décisions prises par le gouvernement japonais et d'un dédain pour la culture japonaise au racisme envers le peuple japonais. Des sentiments de déshumanisation ont été exacerbés par la propagande antijaponaise de la Seconde Guerre mondiale.

C'est en Chine et en Corée du Sud que ce sentiment antijaponais est le plus fort.^[2],[3],[4]

Traditionnellement en Occident et en Chine, le sentiment antijaponais se nourrissait d'insinuations assimilant les japonais à des barbares. Le Japon cherchait à adopter les mœurs occidentales afin d'essayer de rejoindre l'Occident en tant que puissance impériale industrialisée.  Fukuzawa Yukichi's Leaving Asia was the 1885 article that provided the intellectual basis for Japan's modernization and Westernization.  ⇔  L'éditorial (intitulé Datsu-A Ron, ce qui peut être traduit par "Quitter l'Asie") de Fukuzawa Yukichi publié en 1885 servit de socle intellectuel pour la modernisation et l'occidentalisation du Japon.

Cependant cette intégration et cette assimilation souhaitée par le Japon fut rendue difficile du fait du manque de tolérance et d'ouverture à l'Ouest, allant jusqu'à considérer les japonais comme une sous-race ou moins évolués. De même la culture japonaise était considérée avec méfiance et dédain.^{[réf. nécessaire]}

Article détaillé : Révisionnisme au Japon.

La défaite du Japon lors de la Seconde Guerre mondiale ayant atténué l'animosité des populations occidentales, le sentiment antijaponais demeure toutefois latent chez les populations d'Extrême-Orient ayant autrefois été intégrées dans la Sphère de coprospérité de la grande Asie orientale lors de l'expansion du Japon Showa. Ce sentiment est maintenu à vif par la perception générale d'un gouvernement japonais ne semblant pas assumer les atrocités commises par ses militaires, voir essayant de réecrire l'histoire concernant ces évènements. ^[5] De plus l'attentisme japonais concernant les 700 000 morceaux d'armes chimiques (selon le Gouvernement japonais [7]) enterrés en Chine à la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, menaçant tant l'environnement que la population ^[6] ne va pas dans le sens d'une amélioration de la perception du Japon.

Article détaillé : Guerre des manuels.

Périodiquement, des ressortissants japonais nourrissent les critiques à l'étranger. L'ancien Premier Ministre Junichiro Koizumi fut par exemple lourdement critiqué par la Chine et la Corée du Sud pour avoir rendu hommage aux soldats morts pour les empereurs au Sanctuaire de Yasukuni, où sont notamment inhumés tous ceux qui ont donné leur vie en combattant pour le Japon pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, dont 1 068 criminels de guerre reconnus. Il en fut de même pour l'ancien premier ministre Shinzo Abe lors qu'il nia en 2007 l'implication de l'armée impériale japonaise dans l'enlèvement et l'asservissement des femmes de réconfort. ^[7]

Avec l'appui du gouvernement, des nationalistes d'extrême-droite ont également publié des livres d'Histoire purgeant les atrocités japonaises^[8], et l'opinion internationale est souvent interpellée par la controverse entourant ces livres. D'autres personnes, japonais pour la plupart, pensent que ce sentiment antijaponais a pour cause l'ethnocentrisme et une haine profonde et ancrée dans la culture des pays concernés.

Plus récemment le sentiment antijaponais se base également sur des pratiques commerciales injustes, de certains de ses ressortissants et entreprises, telle que le dumping.

[modifier] États-Unis d'Amérique

Le sentiment antijaponais a percé aux États-Unis pendant la seconde guerre mondiale. Le gouvernement a subventionné la production d'affiches de propagande utilisant des stéréotypes exagérés.

[modifier] Avant le XX^e siècle

Le sentiment antijaponais a pris racine aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique bien avant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Non seulement les japonais, mais également les immigrants asiatiques en général étaient sujets à une discrimination raciale dès la fin du XIX^e siècle. Des lois discriminant ouvertement les japonais, ainsi que les chinois, coréens et philippins furent promulguées ^{[réf. nécessaire]}, leur interdisant l'accès à des droits tels que la citoyenneté américaine ou la propriété. ^{[réf. nécessaire]} Les nouveaux arrivants étaient les premiers touchés, étant pour la plupart des fermiers ils se retrouvaient réduits à devenir des travailleurs immigrés. La  Asiatic Exclusion League  ⇔  Ligue pour l'exclusion des asiatiques est parfois cité comme étant le point de départ du mouvement antijaponais californien.

[modifier] Début du XX^e siècle

Au XX^e siècle, beaucoup d'américains voyaient le Japon comme un pays éclairé du Far Est qui a su émulé l'Ouest et devenir une puissance coloniale, comme beaucoup de puissants pays européens a l'époque. Néanmoins, cette perception commença a changée avec les nombreux récits des brutalités japonaise dans les territoires conquis qui parurent dans la presse américaine, et aida a changé l'opinion public.

[modifier] Pendant Seconde Guerre mondiale

[modifier] Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale

[modifier] Chine

Modèle:Voiraussi Il y a un fort sentiment antijaponais en chine. Certains parlent même de "haine nationale chinoise à l'égard du japon. (民族仇恨).Modèle:Cite needed  There may be some regional variation in the intensity of anti-Japanese sentiment  ⇔  Il semble qu'il y ait des variations locales dans la force de ce sentiment antijaponais , dont on suppose qu'il est plus faible dans les zones non soumises à l'occupation japonaise, et, ironiquement, dans celles occupées de longue date par les Japonais. Modèle:Cite needed

Les racines de cette aversion se trouvent dans l'histoire. Japan started off like other Western powers by annexing land from China towards the end of the Qing Dynasty. Dissatisfaction with the settlement and the Twenty-One Demands by the Japanese government led to a severe boycott of Japanese products in China. (voir Mouvement du 4 mai.)

Most anti-Japanese sentiment in Chine can be directly traced to the Second Sino-Japanese War, which was one theatre of World War II. As a direct consequence of the war, China suffered over 20 million civilian deaths and 3 million military casualties^[9], as well as another 23 million ethnic Chinese civilian deaths in Southeast Asia^[10]. In addition, the war caused an estimated $383.3 billion USD in damage and created 95 million refugees. Manchuria came under Japanese control in 1931 as a puppet state named Manzhouguo. Many major cities thereafter, including Nanjing, Shanghai, and Beijing were occupied in 1937 by the Japanese. Notable atrocities committed by the invading Japanese forces included the Rape of Nanking. In Manchuria, Unit 731, a medical unit of the Japanese army, researched biological warfare using Chinese civilians as test subjects. Women from many Asian countries, including China, were forced to serve as sex slaves in military brothels under Japanese occupation.

This was compounded by the arrogance and contempt, fed by the ideology of pre-war Japanese nationalism, with which many Japanese in this period regarded China, and the brutality of discipline within the Imperial Japanese Army.

There is a widespread perception in China that Japan has not shown true repentance for its actions during World War II. The Chinese believe that Japan has gotten off lightly for the damage and suffering it caused. There is also mistrust of Japan's sincerity for its wartime behavior as being slow in coming, vaguely worded and insincere. This impression is backed up by the careless words and deeds of some Japanese politicians and the assertion by some nationalist elements in Japan that wartime atrocities never took place.

There is also deep resentment at the veneration of Japanese war veterans in Yasukuni Shrine, where a number of war criminals are enshrined, and treated as kami or gods, and which openly states that the purpose of Japanese military involvement in Asia was done to bring prosperity and liberation for Asians. This is further exacerbated by attempts to whitewash Japan's role in the war in certain school history textbooks, such as by softening some statements and removing others. That some popular media such as comics [8], books, movies, or documentaries depicting Japanese wartime involvement in atrocities are withdrawn due to nationalist or popular sentiment further contributes to this image. Books such as Iris Chang's The Rape of Nanking generated enough controversy to be withdrawn from planned publication, while scenes of the Nanking Massacre were censored from the Japanese theatrical release of The Last Emperor.[9] The Japanese government first initially denied official involvement with wartime comfort women, and continues to refuse official apology and compensation, fueling a perception that Japan denies wrongdoing for wartime actions.

Although Japan never paid formal war reparations to China, it did give ODA (official development assistance), amounting to 3 trillion yen (30 billion USD) in grants and loans. In Japan, this was perceived as a way of making amends to China for past military aggression. Japan is, in fact, China's largest financial donor, giving more than all other governments combined. According to some estimates, Japan accounts for more than 60 percent of China's ODA received. About 25 percent of the funding for all of China's infrastructure projects between 1994 and 1998 — including roads, railways, telecom systems and harbours — came from Japan.[10] This was rarely formally publicized to the Chinese people by the Chinese government, until Japan announced that aid was to be phased out.

There is a perception among some Chinese that the United States, Japon, and Taiwan are attempting to contain China. Japan's more recent debate to revise Article 9, the "No War" clause, is viewed with suspicion of possible remilitarization. Anti-Japanese sentiment in China is also highlighted by the branding of several prominent Taiwanese politicians (especially those who advocate Taiwan independence) as "Japanese running dogs" by the state-run media. However, some critics of China, in the U.S. and elsewhere, have accused the People's Republic of China of exploiting anti-Japanese sentiment in order to redirect criticism of the Parti communiste chinois, transforming it into criticism of Japan, and building nationalism out of it.Modèle:Cite needed

[modifier] Développements Récents

During the Asian Cup 2004, a soccer championship held in China, Chinese fans booed the Japanese team during the playing of the Japanese national anthem at Japanese matches with several countries, including China. Except for the match against Bahrain, Japanese supporters were instructed by the local police not to use "banners, flags, musical instruments, or wear team uniforms" and were asked to refrain from cheering. The flight to Beijing, the venue of the final match against China, was delayed for two hours due to Chinese protesters at Beijing International Airport. After defending champion Japan defeated China in the final by 3-1, in which the second Japanese goal appeared to be a handball, a Chinese protest broke out, and the Japanese ambassador's car was severely damaged.

Continued visits by Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni Shrine, and the recent approval of a textbook that downplays the Rape of Nanking and the role of sex slaves in the Imperial Japanese Army have further aroused Chinese sentiment. Japan's campaign to become a permanent member of the UN Security Council has met with stiff opposition among Chinese people, and the Diaoyu Islands / Senkaku Islands, currently controlled and claimed by Japan, but claimed also by both PRC and ROC, continue to be a sticking point and a symbolic focus of anti-Japanese sentiment in China.

The buildup of anti-Japanese sentiment, aided by websites, had already been noted by Western media in early 2005. In spring 2005, anti-Japanese demonstrations were organized by anti-Japanese elements in several cities across China. The Internet, including instant messaging services, was used in organizing groups of demonstrators to take part in protests. Many were calling for a boycott of Japanese products. Outside China, these demonstrations were viewed with cynicism, partly since the Government of China does not usually permit demonstrations without government approval. The result was another apology by the Japanese PM, which was somewhat spoiled by visits to Yasukuni Shrine by Japanese lawmakers on the same day.

Concern at anti-Japanese sentiment is believed to be behind the decision of Chinese censors to ban the film Memoirs of a Geisha on February 1, 2006. The fact that Chinese actresses played Japanese geisha, often wrongly perceived as prostitutes in China, had caused considerable controversy among some elements of the Chinese population.

[modifier] Facteur du Sinocentralisme

Other explanations have been offered for the extraordinary persistence of virulent anti-Japanese sentiment in China. One theory is that China's perceptions of Japan is influenced by the historical concept, Sinocentrism, as well as the nature of the historical relationship between the two countries, of which many Westerners are only dimly aware.

China had been a regional superpower for thousands of years before the emergence of Japan in the late 19th and early 20th century, and many now-independent countries were tributary states to China, including Japan. Chinese philosophy and Confucianism figured prominently in the development of East Asia. As such, China saw itself as the center of civilization, perhaps giving rise to the Chinese people's name for their country, the "Middle Kingdom" (中國). During the Tang Dynasty, Japan sent emissaries to China (see Imperial embassies to China) and Korea to learn Chinese and Korean culture, technology, and theology. Much of Japanese culture and society subsequently was heavily influenced by Imperial Chinese models.

The alleged Sinocentrism of China has as an element the characterization of non-Chinese groups as uncultivated people. Modèle:Fact All foreign groups, from other Asians like Koreans and Japanese, to Europeans and people from other parts of the world, were referred to and thought of as barbarians bereft of proper Confucian morality and hence, civilization. Modèle:Fact

Modern Chinese nationalism is to a considerable extent a reaction against the violent intrusion of the West into this picture in the XIX^e siècle, as typified by the Opium Wars, which shattered China's self-perception and forced her to accept an economically and developmentally inferior position in a Western-dominated multipolar world. However, the greatest anger is reserved for Japan's aggressive conduct in the 19th and 20th centuries, which many Chinese regard as an arrogant attempt to usurp China's dominant role in East Asia and a betrayal of Chinese tutelage. Some Japanese now view anti-Japanese sentiment in China as a continuation of a kind of ancient Chinese cultural "chauvinism," even though the existence of such chauvinism lacks historical justification Modèle:Citation needed. The propagation of Sinocentrism as an explanation then becomes a matter of historical revisionism, a subject that has also played a role in stirring anti-Japanese sentiment.

[modifier] Politiques et sentiment anti-japonais

Some take the view that anti-Japanese sentiment is a result of political manipulation by the Communist party and the Chinese Government.

According to this view, Mao Zedong and the Communist party claimed the victory against the Japanese invaders as part of their legacy. Initially, there was no need to resort to anti-Japanese sentiment because the principal enemies of the new country were the United States and later the Soviet Union.

After the failure of the Great Leap Forward and the disruption of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and other leaders decided to take the country on a path of economic development based on the market economy, without relinquishing the party's grip on political power. According to this view, the government resorted to nationalism, including an appeal to the CCP's anti-Japanese credentials, in order to reassert its legitimacy to lead the country and defuse the inevitable tensions that would accompany rapid economic growth. This tendency was intensified by Jiang Zemin, under whose leadership, many foreign scholars and Japanese believe, Chinese schools began instilling anti-Japanese rhetoric into students.

Some argue that this viewpoint is overly simplistic, however. Anti-Japanese sentiment is found not only in China itself but also amongst Chinese overseas, as it is closely associated with Chinese nationalism, particularly among youth. Government handling of anti-Japanese sentiment needs to be considered in concert with many factors, including the interests and strategies of different power groups within the ruling party, the need to be seen as patriotic and strong in dealing with foreign countries, and fear of the potentially destructive effects of nationalism if it gets out of hand.

Although the Chinese government succeeded in dampening the anti-Japanese demonstrations of 2005, attempts by elements within the government to defuse anti-Japanese sentiment have not met with general success. In 2003, the concept of China's peaceful rise was floated in an attempt to contain aggressive nationalist energies but failed to make headway and largely faded away during 2004.

[modifier] Corée

Anti-Japanese attitudes in the Korean Peninsula are often traced to Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910–1945 (even as far back as the constant raids by Japanese pirates and the Japanese invasion of 1592).

Just prior to the annexation of Korea, Japanese agents also killed the Queen of Korea, Queen Min, and raped and burned her body^[11],[12]. This was to prevent Russia, which found favor with Queen Min, from increasing its influence in Korea. In the late Joseon dynasty, during the reign of king Gojong, Japan also took away several rights of the Korean government by force, such as diplomacy rights, through the Eulsa Treaty.

After the annexation of Korea, Japan enforced a cultural assimilation policy. Koreans were forced^[13] to adopt the Japanese family name system, change the official religion to Shinto, and they were forbidden to write or speak the Korean language in schools, businesses, or public places.^[14]

On March 1, 1919, anti-Japanese rallies protested and demanded independence all throughout the nation, estimating about 2 million active Korean participants (the March 1st Movement). Protestors were brutally repressed, resulting in the killing of thousands, the maiming and imprisoning of tens of thousands, and destroying of hundreds of churches, temples, schools, and private homes. According to Korean records, 49,948 were arrested, 7,509 killed and 15,961 wounded; according to Japanese figures, 8,437 were arrested, 553 killed, and 1409 wounded. Encyclopedia Britannica states that about 7,000 people were killed by the Japanese police and soldiers during the 12 months of demonstrations. ^[15]

During the 1940's, the Japanese extracted things made out of metal, including spoons, bowls, and chopsticks, because they needed it to make weapons. They also conscripted young men from Korea for labor and military service. Approximately 200,000 girls and women ^[16], mostly from Korea and China, were recruited as sex slaves, euphemistically called "comfort women".^[17]

Anti-Japanese sentiments in Korea is also due to the Japanese government's textbook revisionism.

Many Koreans contrast Japan's treatment of its imperial past with Allemagne's policy of complete acknowledgement of its atrocities. Koreans, like the Chinese, often feel betrayed by the Japanese when apologies are followed by contradictory actions (see Rochers de Liancourt, Sanctuaire de Yasukuni, and Japanese history textbook controversies).

[modifier] Autres pays

Après la défaite allemande lors de la Première Guerre mondiale, les Japonais sont victimes de discrimination comme les Juifs. Beaucoup d'Allemands gardent une rancœur contre les Japonais après que l'Empire japonais ait pris le contrôle des colonies allemandes dans le Pacifique. Dans Mein Kampf, les Japonais sont décrits comme un peuple inférieur.

Many people in countries which were Allies during World War II continue to campaign for compensation for being subject to forced labour, malnutrition, preventable illness and other hardships, as POWs of Japan during World War II. For example, some elderly people in the Netherlands express anti-Japanese sentiment, insisting there was unjust and abusive treatment by the Japanese in concentration camps during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies during 1942-1945. Together with people from the former KNIL, they have protested repeatedly against the visit of the emperor of Japan to the Netherlands.

En Australie, the White Australia Policy was partly inspired by fears in the late 19th century that if large numbers of Asian immigrants were allowed, they would have a severe and adverse effect on wages, the earnings of small business people and other elements of the standard of living. Nevertheless, a significant numbers of Japanese immigrants did arrive in Australia prior to 1900 (perhaps most significantly in the town of Broome). By the late 1930s, Australians feared that Japanese military strength might lead to expansion in South East Asia and the Pacific, perhaps even an invasion of Australia itself. This resulted in a ban on iron ore exports to Japan, from 1938. During World War II atrocities were frequently committed to Australians who surrendered, or attempted to surrender to Japanese soldiers. An example of this was the Tol Plantation massacre, where about 150 Australian troops were bayoneted to death by Japanese soldiers, which occurred during the Battle of Rabaul (1942)

En Russie, Staline ordonne l'incarcération de plus de 600000 hommes japonais et à la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le massacre de milliers de Japonais en Manchourie.

[modifier] Sanctuaire de Yasukuni

The Yasukuni Shrine is a Shinto shrine in Tokyo, Japon. It is the resting place of thousands of not only Japanese soldiers, but also Korean soldiers killed in various wars, but mostly in World War II. The shrine includes 13 Class A criminals such as Hideki Tojo and Hirota Koki, who were convicted and executed for their roles in the Japanese invasions of the China, Korea, and other parts of East Asia after the remission to them under Treaty of San Francisco, A total of 1,068 convicted war criminals are enshrined at the Yasukuni Shrine.

In recent years, the Yasukuni Shrine has become a sticking point in the relations of Japan and her neighbours. The enshrinement of war criminals, honoring them for having fought and died for their country (even though the Japanese constitution implies the separation of church and state) has greatly angered the people of various countries invaded by those same men. In addition, the shrine published a pamphlet stating that "[war] was necessary in order for us to protect the independence of Japan and to prosper together with our Asian neighbors" and that the war criminals were "cruelly and unjustly tried as war criminals by a sham-like tribunal of the Allied forces". In fact the fairness of these trials is a controversial subject among jurists and historians in the West as well as in Japan. The former prime minister of Japan, Junichiro Koizumi, has visited the shrine 5 times; every visit caused uproar in Chine and Korea. His successor, Shinzo Abe, is a usual visitor of Yasukuni too.

Japanese politicians have responded by saying that the shrine, as well as visits to it, is protected by the constitutional right of freedom of religion.

[modifier] Termes Derogatoires

There are a variety of derogatory terms referring to Japon. Many of these terms are viewed as racist. However, these terms do not necessarily refer to the Japanese race as a whole; they can also refer to specific policies, or specific time periods in history.

[modifier] En anglais

Especially prevalent during World War II, the word "Jap" (or "Nip", short for Nippon) has been used in the United States as a derogatory word for Japanese. This is not to be mistaken for "J.A.P." which is a disparaging acronym for "Jewish American Princess", used as a label for Jewish females who are perceived to be spoiled and bratty.

[modifier] En chinois

• 小日本 (xiǎo Rìběn) — Literally "Little Japan"(ese). This term is so common that it has very little impact left. The term can be used to refer to either Japan or individual Japanese. "小", or the word "little", is usually construed as "puny" or "lowly", not "spunky".
• 日本鬼子 (Rìběn guǐzi) — Literally "Japanese devils". This is used mostly in the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when Japan invaded and occupied large areas of China.
• 倭 (Wō) — This was an ancient Chinese name for Japan, but was also adopted by the Japanese. Today, its usage in Chinese is usually intended to give a negative connotation (see Wōkòu below). The character is said to also mean "dwarf", although that meaning was not apparent when the name was first used. See Wa (Japan).
• 倭寇 (Wōkòu) — Originally referred to Japanese pirates and armed sea merchants who raided the Chinese coastline during the Ming Dynasty (see Wokou). The term was adopted during the Second Sino-Japanese War to refer to invading Japanese forces, (similarly to Germans being called Huns). The word is today sometimes used to refer to all Japanese people in extremely negative contexts.

[modifier] En coréen

• 왜놈(倭奴, Waenom) — Means "short bastard" or "shortie". This term refers to the ancient name of Japan given by China, Waeguk (倭國) (see Wō above). Koreans also use this term to make fun of the common stereotype there of Japanese people being short.
• 쪽발이 (Jjokbari/Tchokpari) — Literally meaning "pig's feet", this term refers to the thonged sandals that traditional Japanese people wore in a negative context.
• Japanophile (Chinilpa) — Japanophile (친일파, 親日派) is also used as an extremely negative term in Korea as in China.

[modifier] Liens externes

• China's angry young focus their hatred on old enemy
• The Impact of Asian-Pacific Migration on U.S. Immigration Policy
• "China Is Pushing and Scripting Anti-Japanese Protests", The New York Times 2005-04-15
• Essay: "Origins of the April 2005 Anti-Japanese Protests in the People's Republic of China", by Aron Patrick

[modifier] Référence

[modifier] Voir aussi

• Crimes de guerre japonais
• Guerre des manuels
• Rochers de Liancourt
• Okinotorishima
• Massacre de Nankin
• Unité 731 (biological warfare experimentation in WWII)

• Portail du Japon